Overview
The infinitive, the gerund, and the present and past participles are in general called "nominal forms of verbs". Let us, after a brief introduction to each form, consider their usage from a functional point of view, that is, which sentence elements (as opposed to word classes) can be made of infinitives, gerunds, and participles?
The infinitive with “to”
The infinitive constitutes the base form of the verb. Normally, it takes “to” to indicate that a given word is a verb (ie., in a dictionary). In speech, it is used both with and without “to”, the former usage being more common. The infinitive with "to" (to + INF) may constitute:
- a subject: To go there would be fantastic.
- an attribute: The first to go
- an object: Do you know what to do?
- a complement to the direct object: I want you to leave.
- a complement to the prepositional object: They were waiting for the train to come.
- a predicative complement to the direct object: I want you to come with me.
- a predicative complement to the subject:Nobody was to be heard.
- an adverbial phrase: They came to plunder
The infinitive without “to”
The infinitive without “to” is used as an object after defective (modal) auxiliaries and “to do”, after certain expressions, as a predicative complement to the direct object after certain verbs.
The gerund
The gerund is a nominal form of the verb, formed by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. The gerund may have both verbal and nominal characteristics:
Like a substantive, the gerund may:
- be subject: Walking is healthy.
- be object: Do stop talking.
- be predicative Complement: Seeing something is believing it.
- be prepositional object: We thank you you for helping us.
- take a possessive adjective: Would you mind my opening the window?
- take a possessive case: Mother did not object to my brother’s smoking.
- take articles and adjectives: The singing of the birds, A good beginning
Like a verb, the gerund may:
- be followed by a direct object: The boys began playing games.
- be used in different tenses: She spoke of having been ill last year.
- form both active and passive: He objected to being called greedy.
- be defined by an adverb: It is worth while working.
When the gerund is used nominally, it is called a “verbal noun”. In this case, it may take articles, of-phrases, or adjectives. Summing up, the gerund may constitute:
- a subject
- a predicative complement
- a direct object
- a prepositional object
- an adverbial clause
The participle
The participle has verbal as well as nominal character; it is a “mixture” between a verb and an adjective. In the English sentence, the participle is used:
- attributively: a breathtaking internet experience
- predicatively: Football is going to hell.
- instead of subordinate clauses: The wino wearing the red hat ...
Similar to an adjective, a particple:
- can be converted into a noun: the unemployed
- can be compared: more exciting
- can form an adverb: unexpectedly, strikingly
Similar to a verb, a participle:
- may “rule” an object: He saw her crossing the road .
- can be related to by a conjunction: Though speaking in a low voice ...
- form perfect
- form passive
Individual usages compared
Subjects
The infinitive with “to” as a subject
The infinitive with "to" may be used both as a grammatical subject (To go by car is comfortable, to walk is healthier) and as a logical subject ("It is advisable to leave early"; which is alike with "To leave early is advisable").
After impersonal phrases like “it is time”, “it is kind”, etc, the logical subject of the infinitive can be placed before it, using “for” or “of”: It is time for me to go. It was kind of her to lend me an umbrella.
The gerund as a subject
The gerund, too, may be both grammatical (1) and logical (2) subject of the sentence: 1.: Swimming is healthy. Travelling is most interesting. 2.: There is no denying the fact that the Romans built excellent roads in Britain. It is no good talking to her as she never listens. It is worth while watching birds.
After the expressions "it is (of) no use", "it is useless" the gerund follows: It is no use crying over spilled milk.
Complements to subjects
The infinitive with “to” as a predicative complement to the subject
The infinitive with “to” may have passive character; after the infinitive with “to”, a direct object, a prepositional object, or an attribute may follow: The best attitude is to do the deed and say nothing. Nobody was to be heard. That remains to be seen. He is supposed to come back today. The legislation was designed to allow for all possible sets of fact.
Objects
The infinitive with "to" as an object
The infinitive with "to" as an object is placed after many transitive verbs: She promised to come. I prefer to stay at home.
The infinitive with "to" as an object is placed instead of indirect interrogative clauses, after the conjunctions what, when, where, whether, why, how. Have a look: We don´t know what to do, or were to stay. He was told when to start, but not how to.
The infinitive without “to” as an object
The infinitive without “to” as an object is used after modal auxiliaries (He can play football very well. You may stay if you wish.) as well as after the verb “to do” (Do tell me what has happened. She does come regularly.).
The gerund as a direct object
After some verbs the gerund follows as a direct verbal object: to admit, to avoid, to delay, to dislike, to enjoy, to escape, to excuse, to fancy, to finish, to mind, to miss, to practise, to risk, to stop, to go on, to keep on, to put off. Read the following: Would you mind my opening the window? I could not help smiling. Boys enjoy playing cricket.
After some verbs, either the gerund or the infinitive with “to” may follow as a direct object: to begin, to start, to cease, to continue, to intend, to propose. Study this: Lincoln began studying (to study) law. He intends going (to go) to Edinburgh tomorrow. He has never ceased loing (to love) the theatre.
After verbs of emotion like to dread, to fear, to hate, to like, to love, to prefer, the gerund expresses habituality, whereas to infinitive denotes an individual fact: I normally don't like reading books, but I like to read this book. I don't like getting up in the morning in general, and I will hate to get up early tomorrow morning in particular.
After the verbs to remember, to stop, to try follows either the gerund or the infinitive with “to” , according to what is meant:
Do you remember seeing her in the park? (=to remember (recall) something); You must remember to post my letter. (=not to forget, to ensure doing)
We stopped working late in the night. (=to finish, to quit, etc.); We stopped to buy some flowers. (=to break in order to do something)
I would like to try swimming. (=to try out st.[an activity]); He tried to open the door. (=attempt st.)
After the verbs to regret, to forget, the gerund refers to the past, whereas the infinitive refers to the future: I regret following (having followed) his advice. I regret to say that you are wrong. I shall never forget hearing her Wordsworth. I must not forget to buy the tickets for tonight’s concert.
The gerund as a prepositional object
After prepositional verbs, the gerund may follow as a prepositional object. Some examples for prepositional verbs are given: to accuse of, to believe in, to delight in, to depend on, to despair of, to keep from, to quarrel about, to think of, to worry about. Some full sentences: He must apologize for having been impolite. He excused his friend for being late. She insisted on being taken to the seaside. They are looking forward to visiting New York. She does not object to going to the seaside. They prevented the Indians from attacking the settlers. The pupil prides himself on having got the prize. Did they succeed in winning the match? Father thanked the boys for having helped him.
After adjectives firmly linked with a preposition, the gerund may follow, for example: absorbed in, engaged in, fond of, far from, free from, incapable of, responsible for, tired of;I am tired of saying it again and again. I am far from blaming you.
Like, near, past, far, from are used like prepositions in this context, with a gerund to follow: I do not feel like working today. The train is near starting. The pain was almost past beafing. I am far from blaming her.
Furthermore, the gerund follows substantives firmly linked with a preposition, for example: to be in danger of, to be in the habit of, to be on the point of, to have a reason for (of), to have no abjection to, to have the pleasure of, to have some experience in, to take an interest in, to take pleasure in; Have I got the pleasure of speaking to Mr. Black? He takes a great interest in studying languages. That is the reason of my leaving England.
After certain idiomatic expressions, like how about, what about, the gerund is used: How about going to bed now? What about making an early start?
Some remarks on the gerund's subject and the possessive case
If the subject of the main clause is the logical subject of the gerundial action, the subject is not further specified: He insisted on doing it himself. However, if the logical subject of the gerundial action is a different person than that constituting the main clause’s subject, this logical subject must be specified. This is done either by means of a possessive adjective or a possessive case: He insisted on your doing it yourself. He insisted on my brother’s doing it himself.
Complements to objects
The infinitive with "to" as a complement to the direct object
Here, the infinitive with "to" complements the direct object. Note that the infinitive with "to" may have both direct and indirect objects of its own:I asked him to come. He told her to show him her homework.
The infinitive with "to" as a complement to the direct object is positioned after verbs of order, request, permission, etc. (see above). It may be of either active or passive character: She ordered the boys to cut the lawn. She ordered the lawn to be cut.
The infinitive with "to" as a complement to the direct object may also be positioned after a reflexive pronoun: They knew themselves to be wrong. He imagines himself to be a great leader.
The infinitive with "to" as a complement to the prepositional object
The use of the infinitive with "to" as a prepositional object is very similar to that of the infinitive with "to" as a complement to the direct object. Likewise, the infinitive with "to" may have both indirect and direct objects of its own: I waited for the rain to stop. The audience waited for the speaker to explain matters to them.
Prepositions used to form prepositional objects that may be complemented by means of the infinitive with "to" are: for, on, with, without; Have you got some paper for me to write on? The parcel was too heavy for him to carry. It rests with you to decide what to do. Ireland depends on her tourist traffic to balance her budget. For eighteen years I was allowed to go downstairs without someone to hold my hand.
The infinitive with "to" as a predicative complement to the direct object
One example shall suffice: David wanted to visit his relatives. David wanted Tom to go with him. Note that it is possible to place the direct object before the infinitive in the manner shown above (as a complement to the direct object).
The infinitive without “to” as a predicative complement to the direct object
Such use is possible after the verbs make, let, have. Try this: Mother made me water the flowers. Our teacher did not let us swim in the river. Have him call back!
Also, use the infinitive with "to" as a predicative complement to the direct object after the active form of the verbs of sensual perception (see, hear, watch, feel, observe, notice): David observed the policeman control the traffic and heard him whistle. Later he watched a ship disappear in the mist. In the studio they noticed a child step on the platform.
The gerund as a predicative complement to objects
The gerund is used as a predicative complement after to be, especially after to be busy, to be worth. Look here: My hobby is playing football. Seeing is believing. She was busy writing letters. London is well worth seeing.
Participles as predicative complements to objects
Participles may also be a predicative complement to the object. After verbs of perception, both participles can be used: I heard her singing a song. He heard a song sung by her.
Adverbial and relative phrases and clauses
The infinitive with “to” as an adverbial phrase
The infinitive with “to” as an adverbial phrase may be used as:
- a denotion of intention or purpose: At first, the Danes came to plunder, not to settle in Britain. She went to the grocer to buy some food.
- a denotion of intention or purpose, with “in order to” as an intensifier: He took part in the conest in order to prove he was the best.
- a denotion of result after “too + adj (/adv): He spoke too low to be understood. They were too tired to walk.
- a denotion of result after “adj. (/adv) + enough”: She was kind enough to lend me her book. They were lucky enough to get seats at all. .
- a denotion of result after “so” and “such”, with “as”: Will you be so good as to fetch me the newspaper? His cruelty is such as to frighten even the bravest.
- a sentence qualifier: To be short, ... ; ..., to be sure, ...
The gerund as an adverbial clause
As an adverbial clause, the gerund is used in combination with prepositions in order to replace a subordinate clause. The gerund may constitute an adverbial clause of the following:
- time, after: after, before, on, since: After spending a forthnight on the south coast, we went to the Isle of Wight. You must finish this job before leaving for Scotland. On hearing the news of the Armade sailing up the Channel, the Plymouth townfolk got excited. Since my coming to Brighton I have had a swim every day.
- cause, after: for, from, at: The pupil was punished for having been late three times. He got sunstroke from lying too long in the sun. He was annoyed at being kept waiting so long.
- means, after: by, in: Livingstone educated himself by reading books. In doing so he proved to be a mastermind.
- manner, after: without, with, in, instead of: He left the house without saying goodbye. Instead of helping his father the boy ran away.
- concession, after: in spite of: In spite of (its) hitting the chimney, the plane did not crash.
- condition, after: in case of: In case of his not being there ask his wife to give you the money.
Note: after and before are preposítions, not conjunctions, in this context.
The participle instead of a Relative Clause
Both present participle and past participle may be used instead of a relative clause. This
construction is called “shortened participial clause”:
The man who was working in the garden was my father.
The man working in the garden was my father.
The car that is parked in the street is mine.
The car parked in the street is mine.
The participle instead of an adverbial clause
The participle can function as an adverbial clause:
- of time: Entering the building, he noticed a funny smell.
- of cause: Having no money, he could not afford membership in the club.
- of manner: They left school, laughing heartily. She interrupted, asking a question.
- of condition: If posted at once, the letter will arrive in time.
- of concession: Though knowing what to do, he didn’t get started.
Attributes
The infinitive with "to" as an attribute
The infinitive with "to" may be an attribute to substantives: Everybody hoped for better days to come. Here is a pen to write with.
Or, to adjectives: That is hard to believe. He was unable to do it.
Or, to superlatives: He was the fastest runner to compete for our school. The next speaker to come forward was a delegate from London.
Or, to numerals: Drake was the first Englishman to sail round the world. He was the last to go to bed.
The participle as an Attribute
The participle is used attributively to define substantives, being positioned before them. the surrounding country, a terrifying sight, a well-known sportsman
The predicative use
The participle used predicatively
Both Present and Past participles are used to form perfect, passive and progressive. Such "standard" use raises questions of both Tense and Aspect, which are outside the scope of this article. Furthermore, both participles may be used attributively after the verbs to look, to appear, to seem, to feel, to sound: They looked depressed and seemed disappointed. She felt tired and didn´t sound encouraging.You'll notice that such "attributive" use is not only possible in a way similiar to adjectives (as shown above), but rather in a fashion somewhat more alike to predicative use.
After to get and to become, use the past participle: He became more and more excited. The child got knocked down by a car.
After the verbs to sit, to stand, to lie, etc., both participles are used: They sat listening to the speaker. After the lecture, they remained sitting. We stood shocked having heard such heresy.
After verbs of movement (to run, to walk, to go, etc.), use the present participle: They came walking into the shop. They went along singing and whistling.
Participial and infinitive predicates
Compare the folloing:
They watched the thief running away. She noticed a cat walking on the roof.(=action);
They saw a ship disappear in the mist. They noticed a child step in. (=result)
More uses: to leave so. undisturbed, to leave them playing, to send so. shopping, to keep so. waiting; We shall have the house painted. I have my hair cut. She must get her coat mended. Please, get your shoes cleaned.
Compare:
I have my book bound. He has his luggage labelled. (=have/make/let someone else do it);
He has labelled his luggage. I have bound my book. (= to have done it by oneself)
Some testing-against
Please consider the following:
They saw him crossing the street. I'd appreciate your leaving the room.
At first glance, these sentences seem similiar. But there is a gerund in the second sentence (as indicated by the possessive pronoun), whereas in the first one, a participle is the class to use. What is the difference? In the second sentence, the predicate is "would appreciate", which takes a direct object. What (or whom) the speaker appreciates is not the person addressed; rather, he or she would appreciate an action taken by the person addressed: the leaving of the room undertaken by that person, to be clumsy. The test here is to form a question: what would be appreciated? In contrast, in the first example the predicate "to see" takes the person seen as a direct object; "he" is crossing the street; they saw him, [who was] crossing the street. They didn't see a "crossing".
H.W.Fowler, a grammarian, put it this way: The English gerund is identical in form, but only in form, with the active participle.
The infinitive, the participle and the gerund have both verbal and nominal qualities, respectively. That makes it hard to discriminate between them, at times. However, such class-crossing characteristics empower the English language. I'll let you off with miscellaneous uses.
Miscellaneous
The infinitive without “to” after certain expressions
Some Examples: You had better go now as I have not done my maths yet. They had (would) rather walk than work. We had (would) sooner read than write. I could not but laugh at his jokes.